Coastal farmers’ perception of climate change effects on agriculture at Galachipa Upazila under Patuakhali district of Bangladesh, World Institute for Development Economics Research, International Food Policy Research Institute, Smallholder participation in contract farming: Comparative evidence from five countries, Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy, Settlements and land-use patterns in the Lepcha Reserve-Dzongu zone in the Sikkim Himalaya, India, Livelihoods improvement through sustainable large cardamom cultivation in North Sikkim, The political economy of policies for smallholder agriculture, Government of Nepal, National Planning Commission and Central Bureau of Statistics, Alaichi (Cardamom): Widely cultivated and exported but limited innovations in processing and market expansion, Institutional and technological innovation: Understanding agricultural adaptation to climate change in Nepal, Research as capacity building: The case of an NGO facilitated post-harvest innovation system for the Himalayan Hills, Climate change awareness and coping strategies of cocoa farmers in rural Ghana. (Eds.). Therefore, risks faced by farmers could be minimized through institutional innovation (Achterbosch et al., 2014). [12] Moad. However, elements that they do have in common include a rural setting and basic livelihood activities. q`qc���F�;S��P�*P,��!P�W�&�&���[���X2#;�l ɐ�� ���& B� � !���� `,U3f7if �[>�_�i��^ � L/��19pO�z°�ffidC���L��x�fj���� � m� Sign in here to access free tools such as favourites and alerts, or to access personal subscriptions, If you have access to journal content via a university, library or employer, sign in here, Research off-campus without worrying about access issues. The largest ethnic group in these VDCs is the Rai, followed by the Tamang, Gurung, Brahmin, Chhetri, Dalit, and Sherpa. Strategies varied by household circumstances (size of landholding, alternative income sources, and access to supporting institutions). The authors would like to acknowledge the entire Feminization of Agriculture, Transition and Rural Employment (FATE) team for their direct and indirect support. Her guidance during this period was great motivation to push through this work. (, Partap, U., Sharma, G., Gurung, M. B., Chhetri, N., Sharma, E. (, Rakib, M. A., Rahman, A., Akter, M. S., Bhuiyan, M. A. H. (, Rodenburg, J., Schut, M., Demont, M., Klerkx, L., Gbèhounou, G., Oude Lansink, A., . 233 0 obj <>stream Between 2007 and 2013, cardamom production declined by about 1,000 MT, and the area of production declined by about 2,000 ha (MoAD, 2013). Ilam, is well known for its fertile soil and variety of agricultural production (Central Bureau of Statistics, 2011). (, Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture . ), also known as the “queen of spices,” is the most prominent cash crop, attracting high revenues across the globe (Stanley, Chandrasekaran, Preetha, Kuttalam, & Sheeba, 2014). Even so, they reported that cardamom farming had been their traditional primary occupation. . Cardamom Farming in Nepal Introduction: Large Cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb.) But they also shared their dissatisfaction with poor targeting in providing seedlings. this video gives knowledge about how to cardamom cultivation in Nepal by Nepali successful farmer who cultivate cardamom since many years! Members of _ can log in with their society credentials below, This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License (. By continuing to browse It aims to create potential corrective measures for the value chain of top commodities, including cardamom. Local officials who shared their views about the Agriculture Development Strategy were unsure whether the strategy, currently in its initial phase, would be implemented wisely. In addition, lack of roads to transfer products to market has put farmers’ livelihoods at risk. or Alainchi in Nepali, is a perennial herbaceous plant with subterranean rhizomes that give rise to several leafy shoots and panicles. Livestock is one of the important sources of cash income of the farm households. This resonates with previous findings that cash crops produced for export contribute to livelihood improvement (Diao, Thurlow, Benin, & Fan, 2012), as they produce income relatively rapidly. The main causes of this decline are climate change and disease, in particular chirke (mosaic streak), furkey (bushy dwarf), and a fungus (rhizome rot; see Chapagain et al., 2014; Khadka, 2011; Maharjan, 2014; Singh & Pothula, 2013; SNV, 2008; Stoep et al., 2010). . Cardamom farming is a source of income for many farmers in Taplejung, Panchthar, Ilam, Sankhuwasabha and Terhathum among other districts in the eastern hilly regions of the country. Respondents reported diversifying with crops including tea, ginger, ground apples, oranges, kiwis, potatoes, and squash. For centuries, cardamom production has been the main source of livelihoods for people in Ilam. Respondents were not willing to give up cardamom farming due to its high return. Cooper et al. Despite acquiring substantial revenue from cardamom, the national government has failed to appoint adequate crop experts at the local level. This study investigated farmers’ strategies for coping with disease in large cardamom in eastern Nepal, which has undergone a tremendous decline in production. One of the goals of the strategy is to develop special programs and produce virus-free cardamom plants. Community mapping helped identify cardamom-cultivating households with different ethnic group memberships and land-ownership and wealth statuses. This product could help you, Accessing resources off campus can be a challenge. Different people experienced the impact of disease in cardamom farms differently. Responding to crop failure: Understanding farmers’ coping strategies in southern Malawi, Thematic Note 4: Building innovation capabilities in farmer organizations, Climate change, poverty and livelihoods: Adaptation practices by rural mountain communities in Nepal, Status and prospects of maize research in Nepal, Cash crop choice and income dynamics in rural areas: Evidence for post-crisis Indonesia, Evolution of systems approaches to agricultural innovation: Concepts, analysis and interventions, Crop diversification and income inequality in irrigation systems: The case of Minipe, Large cardamom (Elaichi) and its trade in Nepal, Farmers’ perception and knowledge of climate change and their coping strategies to the related hazards: Case study from Adiha, central Tigray, Ethiopia, Government of Nepal and Ministry of Agriculture Development, Genetic diversity assessment of acid lime (Citrus aurantifolia, Swingle) landraces of eastern Nepal using RAPD markers, Center for Development Studies, National Research Programme for Plantation Development, Ministry of Commerce and Supplies, Government of Nepal, Local perceptions and responses to climate change and variability: The case of Laikipia District, Kenya, Farmers’ perception and coping strategies to climate change: Evidence from six agro-ecological zones of Uganda, The perception and adaptation to climate change among cocoa farm households in Ondo State, Nigeria, Determinants of climate change adaptation among cocoa farmers in southwest Nigeria [Special issue], International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Von Thunen theory and the dynamics of agricultural expansion, Rethinking innovation and development: Insights from the system of rice intensification (SRI) in India, Climate change: Farmers perception and agricultural activities, Systems approaches to innovation in pest management: Reflections and lessons learned from an integrated research program on parasitic weeds in rice, Knowledge, perception and adaptation strategies to climate change among farmers in southern agricultural zone of Nasarawa State, Nigeria, Towards dynamic research configurations: A framework for reflection on the contribution of research to policy and innovation processes, Traditional knowledge systems in large cardamom farming: Biophysical and management diversity in Indian mountainous regions, Farmers households coping strategies to climate change: A review, Postharvest processing of large cardamom in the eastern Himalaya, Estimation of diafenthiuron residues in cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton) using normal phase HPLC: Dissipation pattern and safe waiting period in green and cured cardamom capsules, Asia Research Centre, London School of Economics and Political Science, Econometric analysis of local level perception, adaptation and coping strategies to climate change induced shocks in North Shewa, Ethiopia, Rubber cash crop and changes in livelihoods strategies in a village in northeastern Thailand, Perceptions of risk and adaptation: Coffee producers, market shocks, and extreme weather in Central America and Mexico, Climate change mitigation for agriculture: Water quality benefits and costs, Adaptation to climate change and other stressors among commercial and small-scale South African farmers, infoDev, Finance and Private Sector Development Department, The World Bank, The management of persistent organic pollutant pesticides in Nepal. He is the team leader of the FATE project under which this research is conducted. A growing number of farmers has taken up cardamom farming in recent years due to better returns from the cash […] The price of cardamom in Nepal has doubled. We lost the old cardamom farms to diseases, and currently we are in the process of reviving it. Of 75 districts in Nepal, 41 produce large cardamom (Table 1). Singha Durbar, Kathmandu, Nepal: Statistic Agriculture Book. In in-depth interviews, respondents revealed that they thought this would kill the diseases permanently, but it was ineffective, and production continued to decline. (, Upreti, B. R., K. C., S., Mallett, R., Babajanian, B. All 31 participants in in-depth interviews said cardamom farming had improved their livelihoods. Since then, prices have been rising gradually, reaching Rs 2,250 per kg in August. With cardamom prices increasing steadily over the past one decade, … Most of us are unaware of the roads and location of the institutions . This reflects the central government’s concern about crop disease and related issues. For example, crop insurance can help farmers stabilize their income, invest in agriculture, and decrease their vulnerability and need for outside assistance when a crop fails (Swain, 2014). Disease and their management 22 10 . Other private to public entities have also collaborated on agricultural research and technological support. Innovation refers to a set of fruitful interactions between various stakeholders to achieve successful transformation (Clark et al., 2003; Edquist, 1997; Lundvall, 1992; Prasad, 2007), but the interaction between policy makers, farmers, and stakeholders in the cardamom sector (Figure 4) is weak, due to poor institutional capacity and expertise. The Mechi Highway connects Ilam to Jhapa district. Due to weak capacity, local government support was limited to providing training and distributing new varieties of cardamom. However, the revival process is ongoing, and many farmers reported that cardamom production for export was the only means to improve their livelihoods. This year, by selling cardamom, I paid my debts, which was a huge relief . Large cardamom production has declined in recent decades due to viruses, including chirke (mosaic streak) and furkey (bushy dwarf), and fungi (SNV, 2008). The information obtained was categorized in terms of problem identification, situational diagnosis, and institutional diagnosis, based on the political economy analysis framework. Also, we do not know who to approach and how. 1. These women spent their share from cardamom farming on food and items needed by their children, like books. x���eTd_�� &R�[�Px��R@�N����P����$��$�[�S���wz��鞙��]��s��}�#;Ύ��;N�/���pp�p����PpPQ��Q���qH�HI��ɩ�i�))���x>3��qrr��� �2sp��s(DDDd|TT|�Oğ���>�{ ��pk0P hL(L�� ��_�? Similarly, in Sikkim, India, cardamom cultivated by the indigenous Lepcha people in the upper Dzongu has declined due to disease (Bhasin, 2011; Bhattarai, Deka, Chhetri, Harsha, & Gupta, 2013). Stakeholder interaction mapping. Lean Library can solve it. (with Pyakuryal, K., Ghimire, S., Ghimire, A., Sharma, S. R. (, Wilcock, R., Elliott, S., Hudson, N., Parkyn, S., Quinn, J. (, Coulibaly, J., Gbetibouo, G., Kundhlande, G., Sileshi, G., Beedy, T. (, Diao, X., Thurlow, J., Benin, S., Fan, S. Due to the inability to meet increased demand, the relationship between institutions and farmers has become strained. Each of these VDC consists of nine wards or settlements. Large Cardamom Production and Yield in Nepal. For years, Nepal has been recognized as a major producer and exporter of cardamom, second only to Sikkim (Chapagain, Pathak, & Rai, 2014; Durbeck & Torstan, 2010; Partap, Sharma, Gurung, Chhetri, & Sharma, 2014). (, Clark, N. G., Hall, A. J., Sulaiman, V. R., Naik, G. (, Codjoe, F. N. Y., Ocansey, C. K., Boateng, D. O., Ofori, J. We have been replacing our old species like Ramsai and Golsai with new species such as Bharlang, which comes from Sikkim, and Salakpurey, which comes from Jirmale VDC. The rise in cardamom prices over the years has dismayed farmers who lost their farms to crop disease, because of their perception that they could have earned good returns if their crops had not been infected. In Nepal, rural people with a decent income tend to send their children to school in urban areas for a better education. (, Govind, K. C., Karki, T. B., Shrestha, J., Achhami, B. The email address and/or password entered does not match our records, please check and try again. For more information view the SAGE Journals Sharing page. This site uses cookies. Create a link to share a read only version of this article with your colleagues and friends. There is a need to assess issues of political economy while aiming for institutional innovation. For example, farmers have diversified crops without knowing the new crops’ market value. They were distressed about the loss of cardamom farming but had secured jobs. In a nutshell, the political economy analysis allows researchers to investigate the cause and effect of a particular event and to identify a specific problem, diagnose it, and prescribe possible solutions (Figure 3). This crop can be grown about 600 m to 1,500 m above the sea level. Some districts outside the eastern hills produce cardamom in lesser quantities, including 56 MT in Kavre in the central region and 50 MT in Lamjung in the western region (MoAD, 2013). To protect and improve farmers’ livelihoods, institutional innovation at the community level is needed, along with policies that provide immediate and sustainable support during crises. The mismatch between demand and supply for agricultural support suggests the need for reconsideration of the types of support offered and the channels through which it is offered. This could relate to change in government officials or policies, which could restrict implementation or change existing policies or actions (Birner & Resnick, 2010). Districts of Nepal highlighting Ilam, Taplejung, and Panchthar. It also calls into question claims in previous studies that the current agricultural alliance and collaboration engages farmers and local and grass-roots bodies to participate in creating objectives, making decisions, and sharing knowledge on issues related to agriculture (Chhetri et al., 2011). . There were reports of government officials only visiting the upper belt of the village close to the roads. Please check you selected the correct society from the list and entered the user name and password you use to log in to your society website. Despite declines in production, the good return on investment has encouraged farmers to continue growing cardamom. In Nepal, cardamom, coffee, tea, pulses, and some fruits are high-value crops in high demand in national and international markets (Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, 2012).In recent years, production of these cash crops has increased with high market prices, … These districts are highlighted in Figure 1. In one focus group discussion, a male cardamom farmer reflected. Some society journals require you to create a personal profile, then activate your society account, You are adding the following journals to your email alerts, Did you struggle to get access to this article? From the supply side, officials reported that cardamom farms require intensive care in plantation and management. Access to society journal content varies across our titles. Innovation transforms the ways institutions function by improving policies, regulations, and their implementation (Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture [IICA], 2014). Figure 1. Large cardamom price plunges three-fold. Tag: Black Cardamom Farming In Nepal. SAGE Publications Inc, unless otherwise noted. Conducting a political economy analysis on data from Ilam district, this study investigated the impact of crop disease on farmers’ livelihoods, as well as both individual and institutional efforts to combat the disease. Large cardamom farming in changing climatic and socioeconomic conditions in the Sikkim Himalayas (ICIMOD Working paper). Officials agreed that they did not have technical experts on crop disease. Focus group discussion is an effective tool to acquire a vivid sense of shocks, vulnerability, and coping strategies (Mengistu, 2011). In the cardamom sector, technology use remains null. From the demand side, farmers expressed concern about lack of proper targeting in the distribution of cardamom seedlings. Table 6. Very few farmers have been able to produce a high quantity of cardamom. Cardamom Cultivation Information Guide. Statistical Information On Nepalese Agriculture Government Of Nepal Ministry Of Agricultural Development Monitoring, Evaluation And Statistics Division Agri Statistics Section. However, production is not the same every year, which creates an adverse impact on farmers’ livelihoods (Achterbosch et al., 2014). However, respondents also reported huge losses of their cardamom crops due to disease, which has had an adverse impact on their livelihoods. Farmers have tried to commercialize their products but have failed due to weak or absent market channels. . Reasons for the decline include land degradation causing reduction in manure production, improper use of chemical fertilizers, use of old and nonviable seeds, and lack of irrigation facilities, especially in the hills with their difficult topography (Govind et al., 2015). These institutions should formulate proper innovation methods and reach out to farmers of diverse groups. For households with sufficient land, the decline in production affected not their basic food needs but their standard of living. In the short time span of 15 years, a vast majority of farmers in the study area ventured into cardamom export production. To promote cardamom revival, policies have to be framed that focus strictly on preventing or combating disease through research. In the study sites, farmers had little access to agricultural institutions, for which reviving cardamom was in any case not the only priority. endstream endobj 228 0 obj <> endobj 229 0 obj <>>>/Rotate 0/Type/Page>> endobj 230 0 obj <>stream The markets for these districts are smaller than the markets in the eastern region. A total of 31 in-depth interviews were conducted, using a semistructured checklist, based on availability of cardamom farmers in each VDC. The other 16 respondents were still producing cardamom in small amounts despite the disease infestation. The global literature includes reflections on various coping strategies adopted by farmers to reduce vulnerability, particularly in cash crop production. Although coping strategies, particularly crop substitution and diversification, remained similar among rich and poor farmers, seeking wage work was common among the latter, who worked, for example, as carpenters and porters. Exports increased to 5,200 MT of cardamom in 2009 (Stoep, Pokharel, Rajbhandari, & Shrestha, 2010), and in 2012/2013, Nepal became the world’s largest cardamom producer, with a total of 5,763 MT of cardamom, worth Rs. Similar findings have been reflected in a global context (Thongyou, 2014; Wamalwa, 2011). Development practices in large cardamom farming (, Stanley, J., Chandrasekaran, S., Preetha, G., Kuttalam, S., Sheeba, R. J. %%EOF Government schools have poor infrastructure, insufficient facilities, and weak teaching quality compared with private schools (Pherali, Smith, & Vaux, 2011). If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Find out about Lean Library here, If you have access to journal via a society or associations, read the instructions below. . We help importers around the world understand the global market of food & agriculture, get connected with the right suppliers and transact with them easily. For example, it reduced their ability to send their children to cities for education or business and to invest in education or business. Table 7. The study sites face severe infrastructural challenges, particularly poor roads. Five respondents (three male and two female) stated that cardamom farming helped them pay debts. Cardamom farming, which was limited to eastern Nepal till a few years ago, is becoming popular across the country. Participants reported that, before the onset of cardamom disease, the crop had been their major source of income. Nepal is the First Largest producer of Big Cardamom with 68% share, followed by India 22% and Bhutan 9%. The eastern hills produce much of Nepal’s cash crops; besides cardamom, these include ginger, broom grass, vegetables, fruits including mandarin oranges and limes (Munakarmi et al., 2014), and grains including maize (Govind, Karki, Shrestha, & Achhami, 2015). Of the 17 female participants in in-depth interviews, 13 stated that cardamom produced more than 70% of their income. Ilam district remains foggy and misty all year round. Including members of different generations provided insights on farming technique ranging from indigenous to modern, changes in livelihoods due to disease infestation in cardamom farms, coping strategies, and respondents’ views on institutional intervention. h�bbd`b`ngb`�cb`\ ����ٞ (:� Respondents reported receiving new species of cardamom seedlings and training from the government institutions. It has been the highest producer of cardamom in Nepal for centuries. If you have access to a journal via a society or association membership, please browse to your society journal, select an article to view, and follow the instructions in this box. Sharma et al. Table 5. 232 0 obj <>/Filter/FlateDecode/ID[]/Index[227 7]/Info 226 0 R/Length 36/Prev 1214728/Root 228 0 R/Size 234/Type/XRef/W[1 2 0]>>stream This suggests that rural farmers relying on market-oriented livelihoods adopt different coping strategies during a crisis than those who rely on customary farm-based livelihoods (Berman, Quinn, & Paavola, 2013). endstream endobj 231 0 obj <>]/Filter[/FlateDecode/DCTDecode]/Height 1229/Length 225904/Subtype/Image/Type/XObject/Width 1755>>stream Findings suggest that cash crop like cardamom produces income quickly; however, decline in production can result in negative consequences for farmers’ livelihoods. It can be inferred that cardamom cultivators are still waiting for institutions to emerge with effective programs. This study explored issues of disease infestation in large cardamom, farmers’ coping strategies, and institutional support for cardamom farmers. Commercial farming of Cardamom is found in the Western Ghats as this area is more suitable for its cultivation. A VDC is the lower administrative unit and a decentralized body run by the VDC Secretary, appointed and governed by the central government. Pyang, in northeastern Ilam, covers an area of 20.98 km2 with elevation ranging from 900 to 2,500 m and has 600 households with 3,205 people. “Innovation,” in this article, refers to a systematic process of interaction between institutions, policies, and stakeholders to produce new processes of social and economic transformation (Edquist, 1997; Lundvall, 1992). At the institutional level, leadership training could be an important step. Despite constraints, farmers—particularly educated men who were also known as local cardamom traders—traveled to the Cardamom Development Center in Ilam and nearby cities including Kathmandu to explore possible ways to revive the cardamom crop. Previous findings suggest farmers are highly likely to cultivate cash crops when international prices rise (Coello, 2008). We invited stakeholders from various disciplines, including officials from the Agriculture Development Office, Cardamom Development Center, Women’s Empowerment Association, and Ilam Chamber of Commerce, as well as other cardamom researchers, journalists, traders, and farmers. Cardamom production fluctuated between 3,000 and 7,000 MT from 1994 to 2013 (Table 3). Large cardamom prices had plunged to Rs 1,000 per kg in 2011. (, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives . Cardamom producers were able to send their children to cities for higher education, but with the decline in production, they were worried about maintaining their children’s education. Ilam covers an area of 1,703 km2 with a population of 290,254. Although their cardamom-producing areas were small, the high returns on this crop had made it possible to fill their food needs; replacing cardamom with lower value crops was likely to generate lower income or none at all. (2009) assert that there is a need for sound policies and institutions to protect the cardamom crop. These were officials from the Cardamom Development Center in Fikkal (another VDC in Ilam) and the Ilam Chamber of Commerce in Ilam municipality, the president of the agriculture cooperative in Jirmale, the VDC secretaries of Pyang and Jirmale, and a representative of the Agriculture Development Office of Ilam district. Even though its farms have extended into Western Nepal, output from eastern region, which contributes around 90 percent in total production, largely dominates the market. In contrast, this study focuses on farmers’ strategies for coping with crop loss, in particular, in the case of large cardamom. Elderly people reported they were distressed to see their centuries-old farm disappear. During crises in African countries including Uganda, Nigeria, Ghana, and Ethiopia, farmers have adopted measures such as diversifying incomes, performing off-farm labor, eating fewer meals, and selling assets (see Codjoe, Ocansey, Boateng, & Ofori, 2013; Ogalleh, Vogl, Eitzinger, & Hauser, 2012; Okonya, Syndikus, & Kroschel, 2013; Oluwatusin, 2014; Oyekale & Oladele, 2012; Tesso, Emana, & Mengistu, 2012). Respondents revealed that these cooperatives were relatively new and had been established to revive and promote cardamom farming. In Chamaita, Pyang, and Naya Bazar, farmers lost a tremendous amount of cardamom to disease at a time when they were attempting to revive the cardamom crop. The study focused on the attempts made by local institutions to address crop disease. Questions covered elements of cardamom farming and livelihoods before and after disease infestation, perceptions about the disease infestation and resulting crop failure, farmers’ knowledge of the disease, impacts of the decline in production, coping strategies, and institutional support during the crisis. Presently, Nepal is the largest producer of large cardamom with 68% share in the market, followed by India (22%) and Bhutan (9%). Several study participants said that voluntarily seeking assistance from agricultural institutions was challenging. Mr. Reddy-May 23, 2017. In addition, one male Brahmin respondent, a teacher in a local school, also considered an elite, used his profits from selling cardamom 1 year to invest in a small hydropower project in the community or the village. . Table 2. A focus group participant stated. Organic Farming Business Plan Information. The drop in production has led to increased food insecurity and decreased household income (Coulibaly, Gbetibouo, Kundhlande, Sileshi, & Beedy, 2015; Famine Early Warning Systems Network [FEWS NET], 2013; Klasen, Priebe, & Rudolf, 2013). Other markets are Singapore, United Kingdom, and United Arab Emirates (Maharjan, 2014; Nepal Trade Integration Strategy, 2010). A recent report shows 67,000 households engaged in cardamom farming across Nepal, which includes 25,000 households from Ilam, Taplejung, and Panchthar districts (“Farmers Worried Due to Failing Cardamom Production,” 2014). These crops, however, were sold in small amounts and generated lower returns than cardamom. He has been ill for a long time, and I was tired of paying the lenders a small amount every month. This calls for institutional innovation at the micro level. FundingThe author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was financially supported by FATE project but author has received no financial support for the publication of this article. The rise in prices has improved people’s economic status as they can invest and build assets. Respondents from poorer households reported that, if the cardamom revival attempt failed, they would go hungry. One female respondent from an indigenous ethnic group stated. Community-level institutions are essential to smooth service delivery and have the best potential to strengthen farmers’ capacity through extension services and provision of agricultural inputs (Salau, Onuk, & Ibrahim, 2012). If the future of cardamom is uncertain, as stated by officials, experts, and farmers, the government’s institutional capacity and support for innovation is crucial. Pyang, Naya Bazar, and Jirmale had just established a cardamom cooperative during the time of the field visit, and only the cooperative in Jirmale was functional. In Nepal, cardamom accounts for 7% of total agricultural exports, ranking second after lentils (29.6%; Ministry of Agriculture and Development [MoAD], 2014b). endstream endobj startxref Different factors affected the change in agriculture in general and high-value agriculture in particular in relation to participation of women. A majority of farmers reported cardamom growing techniques being passed down through their families, describing it as “learning by seeing and doing.” Some acquired training from local institutions. Common varieties of large cardamom in Nepal 18 8. Large cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb.) This will be the focus of broader research within the ongoing FATE project. Other researchers have pointed out the need for sound policies and institutions to protect crops during crisis (Sharma, Sharma, & Sharma, 2009), and have argued (Singh & Pothula, 2013) that, despite policies on cardamom improvement, farmers still face problems because of their rural orientation and limited knowledge about policies due to weak institutional capacity. The parameters used were cardamom production area, type of manure used, drying facilities, technical skills of farmers, market channels and variable cost etc. 0 The study area, Ilam district in eastern Nepal, lies in the Mahabharata range, and is 600 km east of Kathmandu. Men and young people persevered to revive their farms, despite failures. This raises the issue of how institutions can best support farmers who have already taken some steps of their own to address the problem. Finally, the results of this study suggest that merely identifying a crop as having high value is not enough to ensure economic growth in a country like Nepal, which faces challenges of geography, topography, lack of markets, weak infrastructure, and meager institutional capacity. Introduction. This variation has been attributed to climate change and disease. Cardamom Farming in Nepal (Image for Representation) Image Courtesy: Taste of Nepal-Blog N24 Staff Writer, ILAM: At a time when Nepal has been exporting huge quantity of its cardamom production, the post-harvest processing of the spice is likely to begin in the country. Myanmar, Nepal, Norway, Pakistan, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. ���Z��@��L����.��C9/��o�Ϳ�7������o�Ϳ���_�����.ojzd?KS�P$�@�ˋ�����?A:�=Qڗi��"~�|��C�S�� ���N����k�^���܎Q'��C͙��G��@�^R�JG����. The e-mail addresses that you supply to use this service will not be used for any other purpose without your consent. In Nepal over 21,960 households in 37 districts are engaged in its farming. Conducting a political economy analysis on data from Ilam district, this study investigated the impact of crop disease on farmers’ livelihoods, as well as both individual and institutional efforts to combat the disease. These could include shifting from farm to nonfarm livelihood sources (Cooper, Dimes, Rao, & Shapiro, 2008; Gentle & Maraseni, 2012; Ogalleh et al., 2012; Oluwatusin, 2014; Oyekale & Oladele, 2012; Rakib et al., 2014). It can give farmers time to prepare alternative measures at a reasonable pace without being distressed. Map of Ilam district showing study sites. Chamaita did not have a cooperative. (h�p��H�Oh� @C��@��|� ��W߿�`1?`}b��V1��p�a��E����U����0q������������3='7/��W I)i�oj��Z�:�f��V�6�.�n��^�A�!�a� ����S~���������7465�������GFg����WVw��{��G�'W�7�w��ǧ��@�/�*�_��aaa`��� The recorded interviews were transcribed in Nepali and then translated into English. (, Kumari, B. The political economy analysis assesses the link between “structure and agency” to understand the interaction mechanism between the two parties (Harris, McCord, & K. C., 2013, p. 5). It also reveals distressed farmers’ unwillingness to take the lead due to loss of cardamom. The situation we encountered during fieldwork coincides with previous findings that institutions should help address climate change issues through transfer of knowledge about farming techniques and disease control (Akanda & Howlader, 2015; Codjoe et al., 2013; Coulibaly et al., 2015; Okonya et al., 2013; Oluwatusin, 2014; Oyekale & Oladele, 2012; Wilk et al., 2012). Your Email I accept the privacy policy. Figure 3. (, Cooper, P. J. M., Dimes, J., Rao, K. P. C., Shapiro, B. Nepal’s agriculture in general and cash crops in particular is in the process of transition from self-employed subsistence farming to wage-labor based high-value agriculture like cardamom and ginger. The Political Economy of Cardamom Farming in Eastern Nepal: Crop Disease, Coping Strategies, and Institutional Innovation, http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/, https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, 2012, Stanley, Chandrasekaran, Preetha, Kuttalam, & Sheeba, 2014, Ministry of Agriculture and Development [MoAD], 2014b, “Farmers Worried Due to Failing Cardamom Production,” 2014, Partap, Sharma, Gurung, Chhetri, & Sharma, 2014, Stoep, Pokharel, Rajbhandari, & Shrestha, 2010, National Research Programme for Plantation Development, 2012, SNV Netherlands Development Organization [SNV], 2008, Bhattarai, Deka, Chhetri, Harsha, & Gupta, 2013, Coulibaly, Gbetibouo, Kundhlande, Sileshi, & Beedy, 2015, Famine Early Warning Systems Network [FEWS NET], 2013, Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture [IICA], 2014, Chhetri, Chaudhary, Tiwari, & Yadav, 2011, Wilcock, Elliott, Hudson, Parkyn, & Quinn, 2008, Achterbosch, van Berkum, & Meijerink, 2014, Kumari, Thiruchelvam, Dissanayake, & Lasantha, 2010, Upreti, K. C., Mallett, & Babajanian, 2012, Schut, van Paassen, Leeuwis, & Klerkx, 2014, Babu, Glendenning, Asenso-Okyere, & Govindarajan, 2012, http://www.ipsnews.net/topics/malabo-declaration-on-accelerated-agricultural-growth-and-transformation-for-shared-prosperity-and-improved-livelihoods/, http://federation.ens.fr/ydepot/actua/JOURNE/2008_10_03/COELMARK.pdf, http://www.ifpri.org/publication/strategies-and-priorities-african-agriculture, http://www.sljol.info/index.php/TAR/article/view/3307/2681, http://sangamtimes.blogspot.com/2012/05/output-of-meat-milk-cash-crops.html. A mixed group of men (14) and women (17) producing cardamom and other crops were reached. A. P., Thiruchelvam, S. M., Dissanayake, H. M. H., Lasantha, T. (, Ministry of Agriculture and Development . They were among the first in their settlements to adopt alternative livelihood activities and had a keen interest in protecting cardamom. Measures Adopted by Farmers to Combat Cardamom Disease. engaged in its farming in Nepal. Study Areas and Main Crops Grown. There is no comparison of other crops with cardamom . Moreover, adaptation of coping strategies during crop failure is sometimes hindered due to limited availability of land (Tucker, Eakin, & Castellanos, 2009). Households were selected purposively after conducting community mapping in each VDC office with the VDC officials. (. Studies in Nepal have focused less on coping strategies and more on crop failure due to disease and climate change and production decline (see Bhasin, 2011; Bhattarai et al., 2013; Chapagain et al., 2014; Khadka, 2011; Singh & Pothula, 2013; Stoep et al., 2010). Kathmandu, Nepal: International Centre for … The main local institutions, from the government level, that support cardamom farmers are the Cardamom Development Center and the District Agriculture Development Office, both operating under the auspices of the national MoAD, and the cardamom cooperatives. Findings suggest a serious need for institutional innovation to manage cardamom farms. Jirmale covers an area of 37.78 km2 and borders Darjeeling, India, which lies to the east; elevation ranges from 275 to 1,625 m. There are 1,074 households in Jirmale with 5,191 people (Central Bureau of Statistics, 2011). The Challenges of Empowering Women: The Experience of Pulse Innovation Project in Southern Ethiopia, Post-disaster agricultural transitions in Nepal, Achterbosch, T. J., van Berkum, S., Meijerink, G. W. (, Babu, S. C., Glendenning, C. J., Asenso-Okyere, K., Govindarajan, S. K. (, Barrett, C. B., Bachke, M. E., Bellemare, M. F., Michelson, H. C., Narayanan, S., Walker, T. F. (, Bhattarai, N. K., Deka, T. N., Chhetri, P., Harsha, K. N., Gupta, U. Nepali farmers usually harvest Black Cardamom from mid-August to November. About 90% of large cardamom produced in Nepal is exported to India through the port of Birtamode in Jhapa district. In Nepal’s eastern districts, Sikkim or western Bhutan, the people’s livelihoods are similar, they farm more or less the same crops, depend on eco-tourism, and they are all impacted by climate change. It was conducted in only one district, and thus did not address the issues of other districts in Nepal’s eastern hills that also produce cardamom. Naya Bazar, in northeastern Ilam, has an area of 21.51 km2 and elevation ranging from 600 to 2,200 m. Naya Bazar has 1,090 households with 4,743 people. And it calls for an intervention by national- and district-level officials and other concerned parties to strengthen the cooperatives, which would be a process of institutional innovation. Sharing links are not available for this article. For 15 respondents, this amounted to total loss of their centuries-old cardamom farms. Most Nepalese farmers grow diversified crops in order to hedge against erratic and uncertain weather and other unfavourable agronomic conditions. Nepal is also famous for orthodox tea, large cardamom, turmeric and zinger too. the site you are agreeing to our use of cookies. (, Ogalleh, S., Vogl, C., Eitzinger, J., Hauser, M. (, Okonya, J. S., Syndikus, K., Kroschel, J. The current support mechanisms reflect the institutions’ lack of ability to reach the farmers and call into question the institutional capacities in the Nepalese agriculture sector. The in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews in Chamaita, Pyang, and Naya Bazar revealed a more than 90% decline in cardamom production. According to a news report 5,100 tonnes of cardamom were exported in 2012/ 13 from Nepal to overseas market. The failure of the ground apple project in Pyang is one concrete example of market failure caused by lack of institutional innovation.
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